Biomics

The article presents the main milestones in DNA forensics. A brief historical background on the development of approaches to DNA identification of personality, focusing on the current state in this area. The main attention is paid to the emergence and formation of forensic DNA databases and their distribution around the world. Particular interest is shown to the prospects of the organization of universal DNA databases covering the entire population, in connection with which the issues of DNA digitalization and the type of polymorphism of the human genome used come to the fore. The extremely low level of digitilization of primary data using STR-loci is demonstrated, which is especially evident when using methods of massive parallel sequencing of DNA of new generations, whereas single-nucleotide polymorphism have the highest level of DNA digitilization and allow to form highly organized databases with clearly fixed boundaries. The ethical aspects of DNA-registration of the population and the future of DNA forensics in connection with the functioning of relevant databases are also considered.

DNA, DNA-criminalistics, VNTR-loci, STR-loci, SNP, single-nucleotide polymorphism, DNA database, universal DNA database, digitalizing

1. Aminev F.G., Anisimov V.A., Lutsenko V.I., Sagitov A.M., Khusnutdinova E.K., Chemeris A.V. Peculiarities of the Legislative Regulation in Establishing and Functioning of National DNA Database Systems (Case Study of Great Britain, the USA, China and Russia). Journal of Siberian Federal University. Humanities & Social Sciences. 2019. Т. 12(11). С.1990–2000. DOI: 10.17516/1997–1370–0505
2. Aronson J.D. DNA fingerprinting on trial: the dramatic early history of a new forensic technique. Endeavour. 2005. V. 29. P. 126-131. DOI: 10.1016/j.endeavour.2005.04.006
3. Avery O.T., MacLeod C.M., McCarty M. Studies of the chemical nature of the substance inducing transformation of pneumococcal types. Induction of transformation by a desoxyribonucleic acid fraction isolated from Pneumococcus Type III. Exp. Med. 1944. V.79(2). P.137–158. DOI: 10.1084/jem.79.2.137
4. Boonderm N., Suriyanratakorn D., Wongvoravivat C., Sangpueng S., Nettakul A., Waiyawuth W.. Effectiveness of CIFS DNA database in Thailand. Forensic Science International: Genetics Supplement Series. 2017 . V. 6. e585-e586. doi:10.1016/j.fsigss.2017.09.220
5. Budowle B., Monson K.L., Giusti A.M., Brown B.L. The assessment of frequency estimates of Hae III-generated VNTR profiles in various reference databases. Forensic Sci. 1994. V.39(2). P.319-352.
6. Budowle B., Lindsey J.A., DeCou J.A., Koons B.W., Giusti A.M., Comey C.T. Validation and population studies of the loci LDLR, GYPA, HBGG, D7S8, and Gc (PM loci), and HLA-DQ alpha using a multiplex amplification and typing procedure. Forensic Sci. 1995. V.40(1). P.45-54.
7. Buel E., Schwartz M.B., LaFountain M.J. Capillary electrophoresis STR analysis: comparison to gel-based systems. J Forensic Sci. 1998. V.43(1). P.164-170.
8. BugawanL., Saiki R.K., Levenson L.H., Watson R.M.,  Erlich H.A. The use of non-radioactive oligonucleotide probes to analyze enzymatically amplified DNA for prenatal diagnosis and forensic HLA typing. BioTechnology. 1988. V. 6.P. 943-947. doi:10.1038/nbt0888-943
9. Butler J.M., Levin B.C. Forensic applications of mitochondrial DNA. Trends Biotechnol. 1998. V.16(4). P.158-162. DOI: 10.1016/s0167-7799(98)01173-1
10. Butler J.M. DNA databases: uses and issues. Advanced Topics in Forensic DNA Typing: Methodology. 2012. V. P.213-270. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-374513-2.00008-7
11. Byrne J., Dahm R. Friedrich Miescher and the 150^th anniversary of the discovery of DNA. Biomics. 2019. V.11(3). P. DOI: 10.31301/2221-6197.bmcs.2019-
12. Castella V., Gervaix J., Hall D. DIP-STR: highly sensitive markers for the analysis of unbalanced genomic mixtures. Hum Mutat. V.34(4). P.644-654. doi: 10.1002/humu.22280
13. Chakraborty R., Stivers D.N., Su B., Zhong Y., Budowle B. The utility of short tandem repeat loci beyond human identification: implications for development of new DNA typing systems. Electrophoresis. 1999. V.20. P.1682-1696. DOI: 1002/(SICI)1522-2683(19990101)20:8<1682::AID-ELPS1682>3.0.CO;2-Z
14. Chemeris D.A., Sagitov A.M., Aminev F.G., Lutsenko V.I., Garafutdinov R.R., Sakhabutdinova A.R., Vasilov R.G., Alexeyev Ya.I., Slominsky P.A., Khusnutdinova E.K., Chemeris A.V. The evolution of approaches to DNA identification of personality. Biomics. 2018. V.10(1). P.85-140. DOI: 31301/2221-6197.bmcs.2018-16 (In Russian)
15. Ryskov Aleksei Petrovich. Genetika. 2011. V.47(2). P.284-285 (In Russian)
16. Dallapiccola B., Novelli G., Spinella A. PCR DNA typing for forensics. Nature. 1991. V.354. P. 179. doi:10.1038/354179a0
17. Dedrickson K. Universal DNA databases: a way to improve privacy? Journal of Law and the Biosciences. 2017. V. 4(3). P. 637–6 https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsx041
18. Delahunty C, Ankener W, Deng Q, Eng J, Nickerson DA. Testing the feasibility of DNA typing for human identification by PCR and an oligonucleotide ligation assay. Am J Hum Genet. 1996. V.58(6). P.1239-1246.
19. Devlin B, Risch N. Ethnic differentiation at VNTR loci, with special reference to forensic applications. J. Hum. Genet. 1992. V. 51. P. 534-548.
20. Divne A.M., Edlund H., Allen M. Forensic analysis of autosomal STR markers using Pyrosequencing. Forensic Sci. Int. Genet. 2010. V.4(2). P.122-129. doi: 10.1016/j.fsigen.2009.07.004
21. DNA recommendations - 1992 report concerning recommendations of the DNA Commission of the International Society for Forensic Haemogenetics relating to the use of PCR-based polymorphisms. Int. Legal Med. 1992. V. 105. P. 63-64. DOI: 10.1007/bf01371243
22. Duewer D.L., Currie L.A., Reeder D.J., Leigh S.D., Liu H.K., Mudd J.L. Interlaboratory comparison of autoradiographic DNA profiling measurements. 2. Measurement uncertainty and its propagation. Chem. 1995. V.67(7). P.1220-1231. DOI: 10.1021/ac00103a013
23. Duewer D.L., Currie L.A., Reeder D.J., Leigh S.D., Filliben J.J., Liu H.K., Mudd J.L. Interlaboratory comparison of autoradiographic DNA profiling measurements. 4. Protocol effects. Chem. 1997. V.69(10). P.1882-1892. DOI:10.1021/ac961070k
24. Edwards A., Civitello A., Hammond H.A., Caskey C.T. DNA typing and genetic mapping with trimeric and tetrameric tandem repeats. Am J Hum Genet. V.49(4). P.746-756.
25. Edwards A., Hammond H.A., Jin L., Caskey C.T., Chakraborty R. Genetic variation at five trimeric and tetrameric tandem repeat loci in four human population groups. 1992 Feb;12(2):241-53. DOI: 10.1016/0888-7543(92)90371-x
26. Fierer N., Lauber C.L., Zhou N., McDonald D., Costello E.K., Knight R. Forensic identification using skin bacterial communities. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. V.107(14). P.6477-6481. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1000162107
27. Frégeau C.J., Fourney R.M. DNA typing with fluorescently tagged short tandem repeats: a sensitive and accurate approach to human identification. Biotechniques. 1993. V.15(1). P.100-119.
28. Garafutdinov R.R., Chemeris A.V. "Russian traces" in early nucleic acids research. Biomics. 2019. V.11(3). P. 266-281. DOI: 10.31301/2221-6197.bmcs.2019-25 (In Russian)
29. Garafutdinov R.R., Sakhabutdinova A.R., Vasilov R.G., Chemeris A.V Genetic barcoding related individuals. A. Ovchinnikov Bulletin of Biotechnology and Physical and Chemical Biology. 2015. V.11(2). P.20-26. (In Russian)
30. Garafutdinov R.R., Sahabutdinov A.R., Chubukov O.V., Chemeris A.V. Novaja sistema DNK-identifikacii cheloveka na osnove geneticheskih identifikacionnyh nomerov // Fundamental and applied research in the field of forensic expertise and DNA registration of the population of the Russian Federation: materials of the all-Russian scientific and practical conference with international participation, Ufa, October 17-18, 2019. P. 73-74. [New system of human DNA identification based on genetic identification numbers] (In Russian)
31. Gaudette B.D. Databanks. Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences / Editor-in-Chief: Siegel J.A. Academic Press. 2000. P. 486-490. DOI: 10.1006/rwfs.2000.0474
32. Ge J., Budowle B., Planz J.V., Chakraborty R. Haplotype block: a new type of forensic DNA markers. Int J Legal Med. V.124(5). P.353-361. doi: 10.1007/s00414-009-0400-5
33. Gerashchenkov G.A., Garafutdinov R.R., Baymiev An.Kh., Kuluev B.R., Baymiev Al.Kh., Chemeris A.V. The two greatest discoveries of two centuries - the nuclein and the double helix of DNA. Biomics. 2019. V.11(3). P. 259-265. DOI: 10.31301/2221-6197.bmcs.2019-24 (In Russian)
34. Gettings K.B., Aponte R.A., Vallone P.M., Butler J.M. STR allele sequence variation: Current knowledge and future issues. Forensic Sci Int Genet. V.18. P.118-130. doi: 10.1016/j.fsigen.2015.06.005
35. Gill P. An assessment of the utility of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) for forensic purposes. Int. J. Legal Med. 2001. V.114(4-5). P.204-210. DOI: 10.1007/s004149900117
36. Gill P., Jeffreys A.J., Werrett D.J. Forensic application of DNA 'fingerprints'. Nature. 1985. V.318(6046). P.577-579. DOI: 10.1038/318577a0
37. Gill P, Sparkes R, Kimpton C. Development of guidelines to designate alleles using an STR multiplex system. Forensic Sci Int. 1997. V.89(3). P.185-97. DOI: 10.1016/s0379-0738(97)00131-x
38. Gill P, Werrett DJ. Exclusion of a man charged with murder by DNA fingerprinting. Forensic Sci Int. V.35(2-3). P.145-148. doi: 10.1016/0379-0738(87)90050-8
39. Gill P., Werrett D.J. Interpretation of DNA profiles using a computerised database. Electrophoresis. 1990. V.11(5). P.444-448. DOI: 10.1002/elps.1150110516
40. Gill P., Evett I.W., Woodroffe S., Lygo J.E., Millican E., Webster M. Databases, quality control and interpretation of DNA profiling in the Home office Forensic Science Service. 1991. V. 12(2-3). P. 204-209. doi: 10.1002/elps.1150120217
41. Graham E.A. DNA reviews: the national DNA database of the United Kingdom. Forensic Sci. Med. Pathol. 2007. V. 3. P. 285-288. doi: 10.1007/s12024-007-9014-8.
42. Gribunov O.P. Objazatel'naja gosudarstvennaja genomnaja registracija kak jelement kriminalisticheskogo preduprezhdenija prestuplenij // Fundamental'nye i prikladnye issledovanija v sfere sudebno-jekspertnoj dejatel'nosti i DNK-registracii naselenija Rossijskoj Federacii: materialy Vserossijskoj nauchno-prakticheskoj konferencii s mezhdunarodnym uchastiem, Ufa, 17-18 oktjabrja 2019 goda. P.81-83. [Obligatory state genomic registration as an element of criminalistic prevention of crimes] (In Russian)
43. Grimes E.A., Noake P.J., Dixon L., Urquhart A. Sequence polymorphism in the human melanocortin 1 receptor gene as an indicator of the red hair phenotype. Forensic Sci. Int. V.122(2-3). P.124-129. doi: 10.1016/S0379-0738(01)00480-7
44. Gršković B., Zrnec D., Vicković S., Popović M., Mršić G. DNA methylation: the future of crime scene investigation? Mol Biol Rep. V.40(7). P.4349-4360. doi: 10.1007/s11033-013-2525-3
45. Hammond H.A., Jin L, Zhong Y., Caskey C.T., Chakraborty R. Evaluation of 13 short tandem repeat loci for use in personal identification applications. Am J Hum Genet. 1994. V. 55(1). P. 175-189.
46. Harbison S.A., Hamilton J.F., Walsh S.J. The New Zealand DNA databank: its development and significance as a crime solving tool. Sci Justice. 2001. V. 41(1). P. 33-37. doi: 10.1016/S1355-0306(01)71846-1
47. Hazel J.W., Clayton E.W., Malin B.A., Slobogin C. Is it time for a universal genetic forensic database? Science. 2018. V.362(6417). P.898-900. doi: 10.1126/science.aav5475
48. Hazel J.W., Clayton E.W., Malin B.A., Slobogin C. Risks of compulsory genetic databases-Response. Science. 2019. V.363(6430). P.940. doi: 10.1126/science.aaw8839
49. Herrin G., Fildes N., Reynolds R. Evaluation of the AmpliType® PM DNA Test System on Forensic Case Samples. Journal of Forensic Sciences. 1994. V. 39(5). P. 1247-1253. doi: 10.1520/JFS13710J
50. Horn G.T., Richards B., Klinger K.W. Amplification of a highly polymorphic VNTR segment by the polymerase chain reaction. Nucleic Acids Res. 1989. V.17. P.2140. doi: 10.1093/nar/17.5.2140
51. Hoyle R. The FBI's national DNA database. Nature Biotechnology. 1998. V. 16. P. 987 doi: 10.1038/3402
52. Hwa H.L., Chung W.C., Chen P.L., Lin C.P., Li H.Y., Yin H.I., Lee J.C. A 1204-single nucleotide polymorphism and insertion-deletion polymorphism panel for massively parallel sequencing analysis of DNA mixtures. Forensic Sci. Int. Genet. 2018. V.32. P.94-101. doi: 10.1016/j.fsigen.2017.11.002
53. Ivanov PL, Gurtovaia SV, Plaksin VO, Verbovaia LV, Ryskov AP. Genomic "dactyloscopy" with the use of bacteriophage M13 as a DNA probe (the expertise of material evidence and personal identification). Sud Med Ekspert. V.32(4). P.39-42. (In Russian)
54. Ivanov P.L. Individualizacija cheloveka i identifikacija lichnosti: molekuljarnaja biologija v sudebnoj jekspertize. Vestnik Rossijskoj akademii nauk. V. 73(12). P. 1085-1097. [Individualization of the person and identification of the person: molecular biology in forensic examination] (In Russian)
55. Jeffreys A.J., MacLeod A., Tamaki K., Neil D.L., Monckton D.G. Minisatellite repeat coding as a digital approach to DNA typing. Nature. 1991. V.354(6350). P.204-209. DOI: 10.1038/354204a0
56. Jeffreys A.J., Wilson V., Thein S.L. Individual-specific 'fingerprints' of human DNA. 1985. V.316(6023). P.76-79. DOI: 10.1038/316076a0
57. Jeffreys A.J., Wilson V., Neumann R., Keyte J. Amplification of human minisatellites by the polymerase chain reaction: towards DNA fingerprinting of single cells. Nucleic Acids Res. V.16(23). P.10953-10971.
58. Jin L., Zhong Y., Chakraborty R. The exact numbers of possible microsatellite motifs. J. Hum. Genet. 1994. V.55(3). P.582-583.
59. Jobling M.A. Y-chromosomal SNP haplotype diversity in forensic analysis. Forensic Sci Int. V.118(2-3). P.158-162. doi: 10.1016/S0379-0738(01)00385-1
60. Johnson P., Williams R., Martin P. Genetics and Forensics: Making the National DNA Database // Sci. Stud. 2003. V. 16. P. 22-37.
61. Joly Y., Marrocco G., Dupras C. Risks of compulsory genetic databases. 2019. V.363(6430). P.938-940. doi: 10.1126/science.aaw4347
62. Kaye D.H., Smith M.E. DNA identification databases: legality, legitimacy, and, and the case for population-wide coverage. Wisconsin Law Review. 2003. P.413-459.
63. Kimpton C.P., Gill P., Walton A., Urquhart A., Millican E.S., Adams M. Automated DNA profiling employing multiplex amplification of short tandem repeat loci. PCR Methods Appl. V.3(1). P.13-22. DOI: 10.1101/gr.3.1.13
64. Kimpton C, Fisher D, Watson S, Adams M, Urquhart A, Lygo J, Gill P. Evaluation of an automated DNA profiling system employing multiplex amplification of four tetrameric STR loci. Int J Legal Med. 1994. V.106(6). P.302-311. DOI: 10.1007/bf01224776
65. Kimpton CP, Oldroyd NJ, Watson SK, Frazier RR, Johnson PE, Millican ES, Urquhart A, Sparkes BL, Gill P. Validation of highly discriminating multiplex short tandem repeat amplification systems for individual identification. Electrophoresis. 1996. V.17(8). P.1283-1293. DOI: 10.1002/elps.1150170802
66. Kleshhenko E. DNK i ee chelovek. Kratkaja istorija DNK-identifikacii / Elena Kleshhenko. nauchn. red. d-r biol. nauk S. Borinskaja. M.: Al'pina non-fikshn, 2019. 314 s. [DNA and its people. A brief history of DNA identification] (In Russian)
67. Lambert J.A., Scranage J.K., Evett I.W. Large scale database experiments to assess the significance of matching DNA profiles. J. Legal Med. 1995. V.108. P. 8-13.
68. Lee J.C.I., Chang J.G. ABO genotyping by polymerase chain reaction. Journal of Forensic Science. V. 37(5). P. 1269-1275.
69. Litt M., Luty JA. A hypervariable microsatellite revealed by in vitro amplification of a dinucleotide repeat within the cardiac muscle actin gene. Am J Hum Genet. V.44(3). P.397-401.
70. Liu Z., Liu J, Wang J., Chen D., Liu Z., Shi J., Li Z., Li W., Zhang G., Du B. A set of 14 DIP-SNP markers to detect unbalanced DNA mixtures. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. V.497(2). P.591-596. doi: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2018.02.109
71. Lukomskaya A.S. K voprosu o gosudarstvennoj genomnoj registracii. Vestnik Orenburgskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. 2012. V. 139(3). P. 92-94. [On the issue of state genomic registration] (In Russian)
72. Marjanović D., Konjhodzić R., Butorac S.S., Drobnic K., Merkas S., Lauc G., Primorac D., Andjelinović S., Milosavljević M., Karan Z., Vidović S., Stojković O., Panić B., Vucetić Dragović A., Kovacević S., Jakovski Z., Asplen C, Primorac D. Forensic DNA databases in Western Balkan region: retrospectives, perspectives, and initiatives. Croat Med J. V. 52(3). P. 235 - 244. doi:  10.3325/cmj.2011.52.235
73. Martin P.D. National DNA database-practice and practicability. A forum for discussion. International Congress Series. 2004. V. 1261. P. 1 – 8. doi:10.1016/S0531-5131(03)01844-2
74. Martin P.D., Schmitter H., Schneider P.M. A brief history of the formation of DNA databases in forensic science within Europe. Forensic Sci Int. V. 119(2). P. 225-231. doi: 10.1016/s0379-0738(00)00436-9
75. Mayorova E.I. Pljusy i minusy vseobshhej genomnoj registracii // Fundamental'nye i prikladnye issledovanija v sfere sudebno-jekspertnoj dejatel'nosti i DNK-registracii naselenija Rossijskoj Federacii: materialy Vserossijskoj nauchno-prakticheskoj konferencii s mezhdunarodnym uchastiem, Ufa, 17-18 oktjabrja 2019 goda. P.183-189. [Pros and cons of universal genomic registration] (In Russian)
76. McEwen J.E. Forensic DNA data banking by state crime laboratories. J. Hum. Genet. 1995. V. 56. 1487-1492.
77. Miescher F. Ueber die chemische Zusammensetzung der Eiterzellen. Medicinisch-chemische Untersuchungen. V.4. P. 441–460.
78. Milot E., Lecomte M.M., Germain H., Crispino F. The National DNA Data Bank of Canada: a Quebecer perspective. Genet. 2013. V. 20. P. 249. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2013.00249.
79. Mo S.K., Ren Z.L., Yang Y.R., Liu Y.C., Zhang J.J., Wu H.J., Li Z., Bo X.C., Wang S.Q., Yan J.W., Ni M. A 472-SNP panel for pairwise kinship testing of second-degree relatives. Forensic Sci. Int. Genet. 2018. V.34. P.178-185. doi: 10.1016/j.fsigen.2018.02.019
80. Mountain JL, Knight A, Jobin M, Gignoux C, Miller A, Lin AA, Underhill PA. SNPSTRs: empirically derived, rapidly typed, autosomal haplotypes for inference of population history and mutational processes. Genome Research. 2002. V. 12(11). P. 1766-1772. DOI: 10.1101/gr.238602
81. Mudd J.L., Baechtel F.S., Duewer D.L., Cume L.A, Reeder D.J., Leigh S.D., Liu H-K. Interlaboratory comparison of autoradiographic profiling measurements. 1. Data and summary statistics. Chem. 1994. V.66(20). P.3303-3317. doi:10.1021/ac00092a005
82. Nakahori Y1, Hamano K, Iwaya M, Nakagome Y. Sex identification by polymerase chain reaction using X‐Y homologous primer. American Journal of Medical Genetics. 1991. V. 39(4). P. 472-473. DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.1320390420
83. Nakamura Y, Leppert M, O'Connell P, Wolff R, Holm T, Culver M, Martin C, Fujimoto E, Hoff M, Kumlin E, White R. Variable number of tandem repeat (VNTR) markers for human gene mapping. 1987. V. 235(4796). P. 1616-1622. DOI: 10.1126/science.3029872
84. Newmark, P. Biotechnology: DNA fingerprints go commercial. Nature 321, 104 (1986) doi:10.1038/321104b0
85. Novick G.E., Gonzalez T., Garrison J., Novick C.C., Batzer M.A., Deininger P.L., Herrera R.J. The use of polymorphic Alu insertions in human DNA fingerprinting. EXS. 1993. V.67. P.283-291. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-0348-8583-6_26
86. Panova A.A., Sokolov A.F. Vseobshhaja genomnaja registracija: pro et contra. Enciklopedija sudebnoj ekspertizy. №1(3). http://www.proexpertizu.ru/general_questions/616/ [Universal genomic registration: pro et contra] (In Russian)
87. Pereira R, Phillips C, Alves C, Amorim A, Carracedo A, Gusmão L. A new multiplex for human identification using insertion/deletion polymorphisms. 2009. V.30(21). P.3682-3690. doi: 10.1002/elps.200900274
88. Perepechina I.O. Razrabotka problemy sudebno-medicinskoj geneticheskoj identifikacii. Chernye dyry v Rossijskom zakonodatel'stve. (4). P. 208-258. [Development of the problem of forensic genetic identification] (In Russian)
89. Phillips C, Gettings KB, King JL, Ballard D, Bodner M, Borsuk L, Parson W. "The devil's in the detail": Release of an expanded, enhanced and dynamically revised forensic STR Sequence Guide. Forensic Sci Int Genet. V.34. P.162-169. doi: 10.1016/j.fsigen.2018.02.017
90. Pimenov M.G. Teoreticheskie i metodicheskie osnovy sudebno-geneticheskoj jekspertizy tkanej i vydelenij cheloveka. Kand. dissert. M.: 2004. 214 P. [Theoretical and methodological foundations of forensic genetic examination of human tissues and secretions] (In Russian)
91. Pimenov M.G., Kul'tin A.Ju., Kondrashov S.A. Nauchnye i prakticheskie aspekty kriminalisticheskogo DNK-analiza. M.: GU JeKC MVD Rossii. 2001. 144 P. [Scientific and practical aspects of forensic DNA analysis. M.: state forensic science center of the MIA of Russia] (In Russian)
92. Polymeropoulos MH, Xiao H, Rath DS, Merril CR. Tetranucleotide repeat polymorphism at the human tyrosine hydroxylase gene (TH). Nucleic Acids Res. V.19(13). P.3753.
93. Prinz M, Boll K, Baum H, Shaler B. Multiplexing of Y chromosome specific STRs and performance for mixed samples. Forensic Sci Int. V.85(3). P.209-218. DOI: 10.1016/S0379-0738(96)02096-8
94. Puers C, Hammond HA, Jin L, Caskey CT, Schumm JW. Identification of repeat sequence heterogeneity at the polymorphic short tandem repeat locus HUMTH01 [AATG] n and reassignment of alleles in population analysis by using a locus-specific allelic ladder. American Journal of Human Genetics. 1993. V. 53(4). P. 953-958.
95. Ricci U., Uzielli M. L. G., Klintschar M. Modified primers for D12S391 and a modified silver staining technique. International Journal of Legal Medicine. 1999. V.112(5). P. 342-344.
96. Risch NJ, Devlin B. On the probability of matching DNA fingerprints. 1992. V.255(5045). P.717-720. DOI: 10.1126/science.1738844
97. Rogaev E.I. Struktura genomnogo uchastka, soderzhashhego nestabil'nye jelementy DNK // Doklady AN SSSR. 1988. V. 302. P. 324-328. [Structure of a genomic site containing unstable DNA elements] (In Russian)
98. Rogaev E.I. Two novel human DNA tandem repeat families from the hypervariable DNA probe homologous to human apolipoprotein CII-gene intron and virilis satellite. Nucleic Acids Res. 1989. V.17(3). P. 1246. doi: 10.1093/nar/17.3.1246
99. Romanovskaja O.V., Romanovskij G.B. Pravovoe regulirovanie genomnoj registracii v Rossijskoj Federacii. Rossijskaja justicija. 2013. (8). P. 43-46. [Legal regulation of genomic registration in the Russian Federation] (In Russian)
100. Ryskov AP, Dzhincharadze AG, Prosnik MI, Ivanov PL, Limborskaia S.A. Genomic fingerprints of organisms from different taxonomic groups: The use of phage M13 DNA as a hybridization probe. 1988. V. 24(2). P. 227-239. (In Russian)
101. Saiki RK, Bugawan TL, Horn GT, Mullis KB, Erlich HA. Analysis of enzymatically amplified beta-globin and HLA-DQ alpha DNA with allele-specific oligonucleotide probes. 1986. V.324(6093). P.163-166. doi: 10.1038/324163a0
102. Saiki R.K., Walsh P.S., Levenson C.H., Erlich H.A. Genetic analysis of amplified DNA with immobilized sequence-specific oligonucleotide probes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. V.86(16). P.6230-6234.
103. Samuels J.E., Asplen C. The future of forensic DNA testing: Predictions o the research and development working group. 2000. VCJ 91 P.
104. Santos F., Machado H., Silva S. Forencic DNA databases in European countries: is size linked to performance? Life Sci Soc Policy. 2013. V. 9. P. 12. doi:10.1186/2195-7819-9-12.
105. Schneider P.M., Martin P.D. Criminal DNA databases: the European situation. Forensic Sci Int. 2001 Jun 15;119(2):232-8. doi: 10.1016/s0379-0738(00)00435-7
106. Smith M. Universal forensic DNA databases: Balancing the costs and benefits. Alternative Law Journal. V.43(2). P. 131-135. doi: 10.1177/1037969X18765222
107. Stepanenko D.A., Mitrofanova A.A., Kuzakov D.V. Gosudarstvennaja genomnaja registracija v Rossijskoj Federacii: jeticheskij aspekt // Fundamental'nye i prikladnye issledovanija v sfere sudebno-jekspertnoj dejatel'nosti i DNK-registracii naselenija Rossijskoj Federacii: materialy Vserossijskoj nauchno-prakticheskoj konferencii s mezhdunarodnym uchastiem, Ufa, 17-18 oktjabrja 2019 goda. P.237-243. [State genomic registration in the Russian Federation: ethical aspect] (In Russian)
108. Stolorow A.M., Duewer D.L., Reeder D.J., Bael E., Herrin G. Interlaboratory comparison of autoradiographic DNA profiling measurements. 3. Repeatability and reproducibility of restriction fragment length polymorphism band sizing, particularly bands of molecular size >10K base pairs. Chem. 1996. V. 68(11). P. 1941-1947. DOI:10.1021/ac951138g
109. Syvänen A.C., Sajantila A., Lukka M. Identification of individuals by analysis of biallelic DNA markers, using PCR and solid-phase mini sequencing. J. Hum. Genet. 1993. V.52(1). P.46-59.
110. Teodorović S., Mijović D., Radovanović Nenadić U., Savić M. Attitudes regarding the national forensic DNA database: Survey data from the general public, prison inmates and prosecutors' offices in the Republic of Serbia. Forensic Sci Int Genet. 2017. V. 28. P. 44-51. doi: 10.1016/j.fsigen.2017.01.007
111. Urquhart A., Kimpton C.P., Downes T.J., Gill P. Variation in short tandem repeat sequences--a survey of twelve microsatellite loci for use as forensic identification markers. J. Legal Med. 1994. V.107(1). P.13-20. doi: 10.1007/BF01247268
112. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Genetic Witness: Forensic Uses of DNA Tests, OTA-BA-438 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, July 1990).
113. Van der Walt L.M. A South African Intelligence DNA Database: Panacea or Panopticon? South African Journal on Human Rights. 2011. V. 27. P. 496-521. doi: 10.1080/19962126.2011.11865026
114. Van Neste C., Van Criekinge W., Deforce D., Van Nieuwerburgh F. Forensic Loci Allele Database (FLAD): Automatically generated, permanent identifiers for sequenced forensic alleles. Forensic Sci. Int. Genet. V.20. e1-e3. doi: 10.1016/j.fsigen.2015.09.006
115. Vardanjan A.V. Integracija metodov DNK-analiza v kriminalistiku v kontekste sovremennyh tendencij jevoljucii nauchnogo znanija // Fundamental and applied research in the field of forensic expertise and DNA registration of the population of the Russian Federation: materials of the all-Russian scientific and practical conference with international participation, Ufa, October 17-18, 2019. P. 52-57. [Integration of DNA analysis methods in criminology in the context of modern trends in the evolution of scientific knowledge] (In Russian)
116. Vassart G., Georges M., Monsieur R., Brocas H., Lequarre A.S., Christophe D. A sequence in M13 phage detects hypervariable minisatellites in human and animal DNA. Science. 1987. V.235(4789). P.683-6834. DOI: 10.1126/science.2880398
117. Vladimirov V.Ju., Gorbulinskaja I.N., Kubitovich S.N. K voprosu o bezopasnosti genomnoj informacii. Biosfera. 2018. V.10(1). P. 42-47. [To the question about the security of genomic information] (In Russian)
118. Watson J.D., Crick F.H.C. A structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid. 1953. V. 171(4356). P. 737-738. doi:10.1038/171737a0
119. Weber J.L., May P.E. An abundant new class of human DNA polymorphisms. J. Hum. Genet. 1988. V. 43. Suppl. A161. (0643). 19.101
120. Werrett D.J. The National DNA Database. Forensic Sci. Int. 1997. V. 88. P. 33-42.
121. Wickenheiser R.A. The business case for using forensic DNA technology to solve and prevent crime. Biolaw Business. 2004. V. 7. P. 34-50.
122. Wiegand P., Lareu M.V., Schürenkamp M., Kleiber M., Brinkmann B. D18S535, D1S1656 and D10S2325: three efficient short tandem repeats for forensic genetics. Int J Legal Med. V.112(6). P.360-363.
123. Williamson R., Duncan R. DNA testing for all. Nature. 2002. V. 418. P. 585-586.
124. Wong Z, Wilson V, Patel I, Povey S, Jeffreys AJ. Characterization of a panel of highly variable minisatellites cloned from human DNA. Annals of Human Genetics. 1987. V. 51(4). P. 269-288.